Author: Noor Alam – Reviewed by: Tu My Tran and Heba Mousa
Photo credits: Da Yang 大杨

Once hailed as the ‘kingdom of the bicycle,’ China’s seismic shift from pedal power to combustion engines created a complex web of challenges for the nation’s economy, society, and environment. Beijing became a city shrouded in smog and struggling with severe air pollution. The rapid economic growth, population increase, and surging number of vehicles put immense pressure on the city’s environment, particularly its air quality. However, Beijing has made remarkable strides in recent years to improve its air quality, setting an example for other cities grappling with similar challenges.

The root causes
Comparing the past 20 years of its development to the 20 before, Beijing’s GDP, population, and vehicles sharply increased by 1078%, 74%, and 335% respectively (UNEP, 2019).

Figure 1: Vehicle population growth in Beijing between 1998-2017 (UNEP, 2019)

As China emerged as the world’s largest automobile producer and consumer, it grappled with the detrimental impacts of increased oil consumption. Furthermore, the high level of coal consumption, especially during the winter heating season, contributed to the city’s deteriorating air quality, reaching an average of 101.56 micrograms of PM2.5 particles per cubic meter in 2013 (Statista, 2023). Spring brought sandstorms from the Mongolian deserts, further exacerbating the situation. On days with severe pollution, masks became a common sight on the streets, a visual reminder of the challenges the city’s residents face. A 2017 study published in the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America highlighted that extended exposure to particulate pollution significantly reduces lifespans and greatly increases the likelihood of experiencing heart and respiratory diseases (Ebenstein et al.). 

Dynamic strategies
Beijing implemented a series of comprehensive air pollution control programs to combat this pollution crisis. These efforts were multi-faceted, targeting different sources of pollution. At the heart of this shift lies Beijing’s resolve to champion urban rail expansion, transforming itself from a car-centric metropolis into a growing actor of sustainable mobility. In 2016, a cutting-edge integrated air quality monitoring network was created, utilizing advanced technologies such as high-resolution satellite remote sensing and laser radar. In Beijing, a dense PM2.5 monitoring network was set up, with over 1000 sensors distributed across the city (Figure 2). This network played a crucial role in precisely identifying areas and times with high emissions.

Figure 2: Beijing’s high-density sensor-based PM2.5 monitoring network (Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center, 2017)

Backed by municipal and national support, including the ambitious Five-Year Plan 2001-2006 as well as 2011-2016, which coupled economic growth with environmental stewardship, Beijing embarked on a journey to reshape its transportation fabric (Yao, 2018). This transformation encompassed investment reprioritization, reduced freeway growth, and curbed parking provisions, underpinned by an overarching focus on transit and the revival of traditional Chinese urban design – walking centers and transit linear corridors with dense, mixed-use patterns. The result? A decoupling of private vehicle use from wealth, as Beijing embraced public transport, cycling, and e-vehicles powered by renewable energy sources, reshaping the city’s transportation landscape.

Furthermore, Beijing’s ascendancy as the capital of the world’s largest emerging economy endows it with a crucial role in shaping China’s trajectory towards sustainability. This journey involves not just curbing car-based greenhouse emissions but also paving the path for cleaner air and greener horizons. Through a comprehensive policy spectrum, Beijing has charted its course towards cleaner skies. Initiatives like Low Emission Zones (LEZs) are vital tools in Beijing’s arsenal, aiming to reduce air pollution and enhance air quality within defined geographical boundaries. LEZs restrict access for polluting vehicles, driving the adoption of cleaner, emission-compliant modes of transportation (for more in-depth reading of LEZs, read our blog here). These zones become catalysts for fleet transformation, with newer vehicles adhering to stringent emissions standards and older ones undergoing retrofitting with emission reduction technology.

A tapestry of policies complements Beijing’s pursuit of cleaner air. License plate lotteries, driving bans, and scrapping incentives for older vehicles underscore its commitment to phasing out polluting vehicles. Embracing stringent emission standards, incentivizing new energy vehicles (NEVs), and modernizing the bus fleet further highlight the city’s resolve. Furthermore,  the city focused on reducing coal consumption by shutting down industrial sites and improving heating systems. Due to afforestation projects on China’s northern borders, sandstorms, a common occurrence 15 years ago, are now a rare sight during Beijing’s spring (Zhijian, 2023). Embedded within a national policy process of decentralized experimentation, Beijing’s approach propels local initiatives that foster a broader shift towards cleaner and more sustainable urban transportation.

Figure3: A bike user braving polluted air in Beijing (Photo by: 大杨)

Coordinated efforts and regional impact
Beijing’s success was not limited to its boundaries. The city actively coordinated air pollution control measures with surrounding areas, such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. Collaborative planning, unified standards, joint emergency responses, and information sharing significantly improved the air quality in this broader region. The annual average PM2.5 concentrations in these areas decreased by nearly 25% during 2013-2017, illustrating the positive impact of coordinated efforts (UNEP, 2019). 

EPIC’s research suggests that this reduction has led to longer life expectancy for locals. For example, Beijing’s PM2.5 levels dropped will likely result in an increase of 4.6 years for the local residents. Nationally, life expectancy rose by two years compared to 2013. China played a vital role, accounting for three-quarters of global air pollution reductions from 2013-2020 (EPIC, 2022). In contrast, South Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan) experienced a troubling increase in particulate pollution since 2000 (AQLI, 2021).

Figure 4: Average annual PM2.5 air pollution levels in Beijing between 2012 and 2022 (Statista, 2023)

The path ahead
In the grand theater of global urbanization, Beijing emerges as a guiding star, demonstrating how a metropolis can alter its trajectory while maintaining economic growth. By tackling air pollution head-on, the city showcases the synergy between sustainable transportation and economic prosperity. While Beijing has made significant strides, challenges remain. The average PM2.5 level is still six times higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) guideline, and the 2021-22 improvement may be partially attributed to measures taken for the Winter Olympics. The cost of policies pose ongoing obstacles. The need for more cost-effective and incentive-aligned approaches is becoming evident, with carbon markets and environmental taxes emerging as potential tools. Pointing towards a shift away from traditional command and control regulations.